Should Capital Punishment Be Applied - 1414 Words

Other issues include whether this punishment should be applied to other crimes other than murder such as rape of children. Some believe that capital punishment should not only be used for the murder of another person, but it should be used for major crimes such as rape of children, trafficking, etc. Applying this punishment would be a preventive way to stop crimes such as trafficking, rape, etc., because it would not be worth going against the law and face a serious penalty. Accusing a defendant for a crime that was never committed is another issue whether they should be held accountable for it. Innocent people are caught up in a situation where they are found guilty of committing a crime they’ve never done. First, they are accused of the crime, and then they are serving the time given. There are times where there is misidentification, false information, wrong accusing. For example, since 1973, over 130 people have been released from death rows throughout the country due to ev idence of their wrong convictions. Early in the 2000’s there were at least 10 wrongfully convicted defendants who were released from death row. One example of wrongfully conviction happened in Florida in 1994, where Seth Penalver was arrested for the brutal murder of three individuals. There was no physical evidence linking him to the murder; the only evidence police had was a poor-quality video in which the murderer s face could not be seen. He remained in custody until 2012 when the jury at hisShow MoreRelatedArgumentative Essay On The Death Penalty1112 Words   |  5 Pagespenalty is defined as the punishment of execution, administered to someone who has committed a terrible crime (Capital Punishment 1). This is also known as capital punishment, which is known for disregarding the human rights. Although many countries continue to enforce the death penalty, some countries think it should not be practiced. According to the United States, the death penalty continues to be a charged and controversial political and legal issue(Capital Punishment 1). In addition to, the deathRead MoreCapital Punishment : Imposition Of A Penalty Of Death By The State Essay1271 Words   |  6 PagesCapital punishment: Imposition of a penalty of death by the state. Capital punishment has been widely practiced ever since ancient times, as far back as 1500 B.C. From the fall of Rome to the beginning of modern times, capital punishment has been practiced all over the world. However, the problem in the justice system is that the death penalty can be wrongfully applied. This is rare but it does happen, the falsely incriminated is sentenced and executed. It is important that the government stillRead MoreShould The Death Penalty Be Abolished?1350 Words   |  6 PagesShould the death penalty be abolished? The death penalty, also known as capital punishment is a legal procedure in which a state executes a person for crimes he/she has committed. This punishment has been used by many states, and is normally used for serious crimes, especially murder. It is also used on crimes against the state such as treason, crimes against humanity, espionage, and violent crimes while other states use it as part of military justice. There are mixed reactions on capital punishmentRead MoreThe Tragedy Of Dante s Inferno954 Words   |  4 Pagesreaders. As well as, depict what Dante believed hell to be, and express some of his concerns with divine justice, and the appropriate punishments for the crimes committed. While reading this epic piece it spoke in many ways, and it addresses similar issues that are still prevalent in current culture. This religious allegory seems to focus on punishments, and how it should equal up to the wrong that was done. It brings to mind the rule of Contrapasso. According to John Kameen, Contrapasso is one of theRead MoreEssay about The Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1479 Words   |  6 Pagesdeath penalty, also known as capital punishment is a legal procedure in which a state executes a person for crimes he/she has committed. This punishment has been implemented by many states, and is normally used for atrocious crimes, especially murder. It is also used on crimes against the state such as treason, crimes against humanity, espionage, and violent crimes while other states use it as part of military justice. There are mixed reactions on capital punishment depending on one’s faith, andRead MorePersuasive Essay On The Death Penalty910 Words   |  4 Pageshistory of capital punishment, and why others believe it is okay. Capital punishment is when someone has committed a crime in which they are sentenced to death. In this paper I will be arguing that the death penalty is okay. Capital punishment has been a controversial and debatable issue for centuries. People have been sentenced to capital punishment since the beginning of time, it has been accepted as fair punishment by law enforcement within any period. Over time capital punishment has becomeRead MoreThe Death Penalty Of Capital Punishment1333 Words   |  6 Pagesof the many terrible mishaps, that have occurred in the history of the death penalty. Capital punishment has long been a controversial topic, with a countless number of cases taken up to the Supreme Court. This barbaric form of â€Å"discipline† began as early as 1750 B.C, with one of the most notable portrayals being a statement in Hammurabi s Code. Today, in the 31 states, in which the death penalty is legal, capital crimes from first degree murder, terrorism to espionage, are all punishable by deathRead MoreCapital Punishment : The Death Penalty932 Words   |  4 PagesBinch Ms. Stevens English 9 Honors 6th May 2016 Capital Punishment Tom Robinson is a Black, unfairly tried, innocent character being tried for Capital Punishment for falsely accused of raping a white girl in the book â€Å"To Kill A Mockingbird.† (Lee, Harper.). This is clearly wrong. Governments should not concern itself with taking people s lives. Capital punishment is a legally authorised killing for a crime. In the modern United States capital punishment is only used for punishing murder. The 1930’sRead MoreHistorical and Definition of Capital Punishment1160 Words   |  5 Pages This essay will out line the historical and definition of capital punishment. In the time of life each crime should have sentence which makes the criminal stop doing their mistakes again and again. People might not agree with some laws, their should believes that laws made only to protects them and their houses, farms, cars , also their life. There are a huge number of crimes such as robbery and assault on the street. If we couldnt find a sentence or laws to stop that which putting people lifeRead MoreIs Capital Punishment Immoral? Essay1525 Words   |  7 PagesIs Capital Punishment Immoral? In a Kantian world with moral laws, capital punishment does not seem to be a theoretical solution for punishing murders. But when someone does commit murder those individuals render their rights, and henceforth would acknowledge their action with consequences, such as capital punishment. Jeffrey H. Reiman presents various arguments against the use of capital punishment with no adequate evidence of effectiveness, but I disagree. Capital punishment is a reasonable

Vaccines And Its Effects On Children - 1503 Words

Life as we know it was just a dream for most families in the 19th and 20th centuries- they were consumed with fear of having family members die from awful diseases, while that is the last thing on most of the world’s minds now. Vaccines have transformed human life. Parents should vaccinate their children because it saves lives, the vaccines are safe, and the risks of not vaccinating can harm children more than the vaccines themselves. Vaccines were created in 1796 by Edward Jenner, an English scientist. Edward Jenner formed the Royal Jennerian Institute when vaccines became more popular, but experienced some opposition towards it because of people s religious and liberal beliefs. In the 1880s, french scientist Louis Pasteur created a version of a rabies vaccine. Although many scientists were starting to work more with diseases and vaccines than ever before, vaccines did not become widely available to the public until the 1920s. The deadly disease Smallpox was completely eradic ated, because of vaccines, in 1980. A cervical cancer scientist, Harald zur Hausen, was awarded a Nobel Prize in 2008 for his work on created a vaccine for cervical cancer; he discovered that the cancer was caused by a virus, so it was possible to make a vaccine for it (National Health Service- UK). Without vaccines, amazing milestones in the world s health would not have been made. Vaccines can save lives in many ways- including the child vaccinated and other children. If the child is vaccinated,Show MoreRelatedVaccines And Its Effects On Children1404 Words   |  6 Pagesadverse reactions from the vaccines? Today, there are many vaccines, they are in such high demand that even a simple flu has a vaccine. Vaccines are created to protect us. The main function of vaccines it to build our immune system and fight against many bacterias. However, adverse reactions have become severe over the last couple of years, leaving some parents with no child. Therefore, parents shouldn’t be punished for not vaccinating their children because, vaccines can cause many adverse reactionsRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1339 Words   |  6 PagesNowadays, there are many vaccines invented by different scientists. Vaccines are so much in demand that even a simple flu has a certain vaccine. They have been invented to protect us. Its main function is to build our immune system and allow it to work against different kinds of bacteria. However instead of helping us fight against infection and certain diseases, vaccines can be the main cause of infection and diseases. Because of its live-attenuated organism, which means the pathogens were partiallyRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1010 Words   |  5 PagesVaccines Debates have risen lately whether or not to vaccinate children. Although vaccines potentially cause negative side effects, they are a common procedure for most families each year. Over time, several case studies have developed highlighting these side effects and raised concern about whether or not to accept vaccines. However, many people are not familiar with the typical vaccine and what it actually does once inside the body. â€Å"A vaccine is consisted of killed or weakened versions of aRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1325 Words   |  6 Pages Vaccines are essential to a person’s everyday life and well-being. A person who sneezed in their hand just touched the same door handle that everyone else does. Most people don’t worry that they touched the same item or breathe the same air as someone else because the risk of them contracting a disease such as polio, or diphtheria are extremely low because most people are vaccinated against such diseases. Without the creation of vaccines the population of the world could be completely eliminatedRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1400 Words   |  6 Pages Vaccines have changed the life of children with making some illnesses obsolete. The majority of parents are making sure that their children get vaccinated against potentially serious diseases. The parents that get their children vaccinated are trying to prevent the reoccurrence of these deadly illnesses. The problem arises when you have these children that have not been vaccinated around children not of age to get the vaccine for a particular disease. The older children get the disease and giveRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1463 Words   |  6 Pagesnot until 1796 when Edward Jenner revolutionized medical technology, with the first record of vaccines. Vaccines have diminished these diseases going from very common to little or none. Setting requirements on vaccines will not assist the reduction or eliminate them, but will also protect our youth from the wide-spread variety of deadly diseases. Multiple individuals do not truly understand what vaccines are and their true benefits and advantages of receiving them. When an individual gets ill,Read MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children914 Words   |  4 PagesVaccines have saved millions of lives since they were first invented hundreds of years ago. But, they continue be a much debated topic among doctors and parents. Their benefits are often disputed because of so-called dangers related to their administration. Although vaccines are extremely effective, parents still have the power to decide if their children will receive them or not. As a result of parents choosing to not vaccinate their children, others may become ill and government spending increasesRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children992 Words   |  4 Pages Vaccines, while known as the painful occurrence at the physicians visits of your childhood, are responsible for eradicating many of the deathly diseases of the past. While no child likes being stuck wi th a needle, guaranteed immunity to certain life altering diseases is worth the slight prick. Recent movements regarding vaccines has shed a negative light on vaccines, and if they continue to grow attention, may bring back some of the diseases that were the initial issue. Vaccines are a very helpfulRead MoreThe Importance Of Vaccines And Its Effect On Children915 Words   |  4 PagesThe Importance of Vaccines Having a baby utterly changes the perspective of the parent. They no longer are self- involved, but now have this new life they brought into the world. Nothing else can give a person the same joy that being a parent can bring. A parent would do anything for their child to protect them and give them the best life imaginable. A parent would never wish an illness upon their child and would do everything in their power to prevent their child from getting sick. With havingRead MoreChildhood Vaccines And Its Effects On Children1528 Words   |  7 Pagesdiscussed and debated about whether or not people should vaccinate their children. â€Å"Childhood vaccines offer protection from serious or potentially fatal diseases† (The Mayo Clinic, 2014)†. Vaccinations prevent diseases that can affect a child with symptoms of a cold or in some cases, the disease can be much more serious and can cause disability and death. The problem is that parents are choosing not to vaccinate their children against them. With choosing against vaccinating a child becoming a common

Are German Atrocities In A Myth Or Reality History Essay Free Essays

On one manus, the book German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial is of great value, as it portrays the state of affairs on the footing of legion beginnings and grounds. What really happened during the German invasion of Belgium in August 1914 was, in much item, analyzed to come to a decision that would non merely be based on premises and accusals. There was an â€Å" extraordinary sum of myth and fable that propagandists deposited over the true history of the events †[ 3 ]. We will write a custom essay sample on Are German Atrocities In A Myth Or Reality History Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now This besides has to be considered when analysing this book, as it can besides be seen as a type of propaganda. The beginning, originated in 2001 and written by John Horne and Alan Kramer, weighed the grounds of these past happenings, to find what can be considered to be a myth, and what is accepted to be world. It explains that German soldiers feared and really much expected to happen barbarian franc-tireurs, or civilian zealots, around every corner in Belgium. This caused them to put to death normal enemy soldiers, guiltless civilians and even some of their ain people in friendly fires.[ 4 ]Germans burnt down the mediaeval library in Louvain because they believed franc-tireurs had been active at that place. In world there was â€Å" no official Belgian policy of civilian opposition, and really small – if any – existent civilian opposition. â€Å" A? There is really small grounds for stray incidents, so the writers of this book found that Germans had no valid ground to assail civilians. However, German soldiers executed around 6,500 guiltless civilians, driven by their ain paranoia. Kramer and Horne besides straight associate these accounts to the usage of propaganda at the clip. In their book it is explained that the British authorities published studies of German atrociousnesss affecting kids whose custodies were cut off as they were keeping onto their female parents, and farther narratives that were depicted for the British public to see. These illustrations of propaganda are really relevant to this rating, because they introduce another facet of the state of affairs. Britain used propaganda to influence and pull strings its ain people, by doing them believe that the Germans were brutal monsters that had to be stopped. It made certain that all people knew precisely whom to direct their hatred towards. Britain ‘s chief statement was that Germany was evil, had to be attacked and surely defeated. The worse Germany ‘s atrociousnesss seemed, the easier it was for Britain to convert its people that war was necessary to halt them.[ 5 ]One of Britain â₠¬Ëœs chief motivations was besides to conceal any facts that would demo how barbarous war really was, as it wanted to convert as many of its citizens as possible to enlist themselves in the ground forces. Recruiting was one of its chief ideas behind such propaganda. Cinemas, films, and photographs presented German undercover agents and barbarous atrociousnesss, and besides British authors were told to make anti-German propaganda.[ 6 ]A specialised â€Å" War Propaganda Bureau † , besides known as â€Å" Wellington House † , was set up merely to command the people ‘s sentiments. It was really active and had sub-divisions, one of which specialized merely on anti-German propaganda.[ 7 ]It is unquestionable whether Britain took advantage of the narratives refering German atrociousnesss to pull strings the heads of its people in 1914. The invasion of Belgium gave Britain a ground to take portion in the war, and the public propaganda it had used to turn its citizens ag ainst Germany, gave the state the strength to bear up against its enemy. Another really of import facet of propaganda is the Bryce Report.[ 8 ]This beginning of information is really valuable when looking at the point of position that Germany did perpetrate such a big figure of war offenses. It evaluates a broad assortment of histories of victims and provinces that its claims are based on informant studies, whose names could, nevertheless, non be identified. It is explained that this is due to â€Å" the fright that there might be German reprisals against household members. But British soldier informants remained every bit anon. , for no evident ground. Nevertheless in his debut, Bryce said he and his fellow commissioners had tested the grounds ‘severely. ‘ â€Å"[ 9 ]James Bryce wrote this study to inform people in the United States about the state of affairs refering German atrociousnesss in Belgium, and it was published with a really certain consequence. The United States had a more impersonal attitude towards the state of affairs in Euro pe, until Bryce ‘s study was officially presented to its people. Its transcripts were sold for merely a penny, and the many people who read it thought of the Germans the same manner British citizens did. When replying the inquiry, whether or non German atrociousnesss in 1914 were myth or world, the Bryce Report can on one manus be considered an hyperbole of the past incidents, but on the other besides as a valid beginning that proved German atrociousnesss to be true to such a big extent. On one manus there is important agnosticism about the study, as even Bryce reported himself as doubting. It was used for anti-German propaganda, and it was rushed into print five yearss after the sinking of the Lusitania, a British rider ship, to convey the United States into the war. Narratives of atrociousnesss were dubbed as propaganda and prevarications and were non verifiable. On the other manus, it can be considered to be dependable because it contains first-hand studies from 1,200 refugees in Britain, official Belgian studies, and infusions from German journals. These studies were good known to the general populace. The Bryce Report besides provides conclusive grounds of onslaughts against civilians and cultural sites. The German authorities published paperss both during and after the war trying to legalize their actions against civilians, thereby turn outing that they did happen.[ 10 ] To oppose the thoughts of the study and besides some of Horne ‘s and Kramer ‘s averments, an article from a German citizen, Klaus Wippermann, was published in August 2004.[ 11 ]It introduces the thought that most of the atrociousnesss were strictly fantasized and that it was merely British propaganda that gave Germany such a hideous image in World War 1. It states that Britain debased Germany and made it look to be inhumane. The beginning besides discusses the thought that Britain welcomed Germany ‘s invasion of Belgium, to give it the best possible alibi to get down contending. The war was non merely a consequence of Germany ‘s purposes, because all other powers had much more specific grounds to get down one. The article besides mentions that Horne and Kramer analyzed distorted facts instead than valid 1s, and that their book is based on a figure of selected beginnings that give Germany an even worse image. It states that any offense committed by a German is automatically worse that the same offense committed by person else, and clarifies how absurd such ways of believing and such ways of analysing state of affairss are. From this it can be seen that really different sentiments can be based on really different pieces of grounds, and that the clip period besides affects certain perceptual experiences of world. Horne ‘s and Kramer ‘s book appears to be really dependable, as it shows both sides to this statement and provides grounds and a background that is doubtless a valid beginning of information. It does non deny or contradict events that truly did take topographic point, and it besides evaluates to what extent propaganda exaggerated them. Bryce ‘s study is a instead nonreversible statement and gives the feeling that Germans were strictly evil, which coincides with the thoughts portrayed by British propaganda at the clip. Britain and the United States wanted to act upon their people to give them a colored position towards the war. Propaganda at the clip, even if exaggerated to a big extent, was still really reliable because it was, after all, based on a figure of true occasions. Wh ilst Germans denied to hold been guilty of anything at the clip, their enemies made it look as if they were hardhearted monsters who were merely waiting to anguish and execute civilians. This was a instance of common denial, as Belgium negated all accusals of holding franc-tireurs that caused Germany to perpetrate such offenses, and Germany steadfastly believed that it was a victim of Belgian zealots. It can be said that German atrociousnesss either happened, were imagined, or that they were invented to organize public sentiment, but neither of these facets can entirely reply the inquiry whether or non they were myth or world, because they were all interlinked to give such beliing statements refering this subject. How to cite Are German Atrocities In A Myth Or Reality History Essay, Essay examples

Beyond Beats and Rhymes free essay sample

Everything he sees at this event shows different types of conflict models. It shoes white majority vs.. Ethnic minorities when rappers talk about living in ghettos and white people who live in the suburbs listen to rap as their only means of understanding what black people go through in their lives you could also include wealthy vs.. The working class in this argument. Patriarchy vs.. Feminism is also great discussed in this film when he talks about women fromSpaceman College in Atlanta were angry at Newly for sliding a credit card through a womans butt crack in one of his music videos. Hip-hop could get step out of the box very easily all they have to do is start rapping about the good side of African American life and avoid the negative. Be the innovators of change for the African American society, by giving back to the communities. They should lead by example they have great power and a voice that people will listen too if they used it to speak about change and education people will listen. We will write a custom essay sample on Beyond Beats and Rhymes or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page

Uvod Essays (9689 words) - , Term Papers, Research Papers

Uvod Tema moga rada je Historija farmacije. U skladu s time, koriste?i se knjigom History of medicine (Povijest medicine) kao glavnom vodiljom, pisati ?u zaraznim bolestima i njihovim uzro?nicima te se tako nadovezati na eksplikaciju pojmova virus, viroid i prion te o morfologiji i osobinama istih. U sredi?njem dijelu bit ?e rije?i o povijesnom pregledu najupe?atljivijih farmakologa, mikrobiologa, bakteriologa tj. ljudi koji su otvorili vrata polju virologije. Osvrnut ?u se na istra?iva?e spomenute u glavnoj literaturi te na jo? neke istra?iva?e i njihova istra?ivanja. To su: Celsus, Loius Pasteur, Edward Jenner, Adolf Eduard Mayer, Martinus Beijerinck i Dimitrij Ivanovski, Friedrich Loeffler, Paul Frosch, Frederick William Twort, Felix d'Hrelle, Paul de Kruif, Stanley B. Prusiner, Carleton Gajdusek... Kada govorimo o farmaciji, moramo spomenuti i lijekove te tako u posljednjem poglavlju obra?ujem tu temu. Jo? od anti?ke tradicije ljudi su se bavili popisivanjem lijekova, opisivali njihova svojstva i djelovanje. Povijest farmacije je op?irna tema kojoj zasigurno ne?e biti dosta nekoliko stranica ovog seminara da bih ju pokrila kako joj prili?i, no potrudit ?u se dati ?to bolji osnovan osvrt na zadanu temu. Prvo je va?no upoznati se s terminom farmacija. Farmacija je ukupnost znanja o poznavanju, prire?ivanju, ispitivanju i ?uvanju lijekova (9). Farmaceutska profesija (Slika 1) povezuje se sa farmakologijom kao dijelom medicine koja prou?ava djelovanje lijekova na organizam i farmakopejom koja predstavlja ukupnost propisa o pripravljanju i postupanju s lijekovima. Mnogo je podru?ja koja farmacija prou?ava, a neka od njih su: 1. Farmaceutska kemija 2. Farmaceutska tehnologija 3. Farmakologija 4. Toksikologija 5. Klini?ka farmacija (13) Sl. 1 Me?unarodni simbol farmaceutske profesije [pic] (http://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacija) 1. Zarazne bolesti Izme?u zdravlja i bolesti nema o?trih granica pa ni jasnih razgrani?enja me?u razli?itim stupnjevima sposobnosti. Bolesti uzrokovane zaraznim mikroorganizmima (od gr?kih rije?i micros, ?to zna?i mali, si?u?an i organon koja ozna?ava odijeljeni dio tijela) (mikrobi - od gr?ke rije?i micros, te rije?i bios, ?to zna?i ?ivot) zovu se zaraznim (infekcijskim) bolestima (4). Uzro?nici prodru u tijelo i mogu izravno o?tetiti organe ili mogu to u?initi otrovima koje izlu?uju pa o?te?enja tkiva ili organa zna?e bolest. Ipak, uzro?nici mogu u?i u ?ovjekovo tijelo, a da ne prouzro?e bolest, premda postoji zaraza (infekcija). Njih nazivamo klicono?ama (onaj koji u sebi nosi zarazne klice, onaj koji raznosi klice). 1. Op?enito o zaraznim bolestima Za postanak zarazne bolesti moraju postojati uzro?nik, izvor zaraze, mogu?nost prijenosa uzro?nika od izvora zaraze do ?ovjeka te ?ovjekova sklonost obolijevanju od zarazne bolesti. Zaraza se mo?e prenositi zrakom, slinom, doticajem one?ienim rukama i predmetima te hranom ili vodom u koju su dospjeli mikroorganizmi. Zarazu ?ovjeku mogu prenijeti i ?ivotinje. Zarazne bolesti uvijek nastaju kad se poremeti ravnote?a izme?u patogenih uzro?nika i obrambenih snaga tijela (3). 2. Uzro?nici zaraznih bolesti i bolesti koje uzrokuju Uzro?nici zaraznih bolesti prema biologijskim osobinama pripadaju razli?itim skupinama ?ivih bi?a, i to su bakterije, virusi, protozoe, gljivice i crvi. Mnogi su mikroorganizmi potrebni. Neki ?ak i prirodno ?ive u ?ovjekovu tijelu (saprofiti). Mikroorganizmi su sposobni uzrokovati zarazne bolesti (patogeni uzro?nici) i takvi su obi?no nevidljivi prostim okom i promatraju se mikroskopom. |Skupina uzro?nika |Bolesti | |Streptokoki |Streptokokne bolesti: angina, | | |?arlah, crveni vjetar, streptokokna| |Meningokoki |sepsa | | | | |Pneumokoki |Upala mozgovnica, meningokokna | | |sepsa | |Ostali | | | |Upala plu?a i druge upale | | | | | |Difterija, trbu?ni tifus, | | |dizenterija, bruceloza, crni pri?t,| |Bakterije |kolera, tetanus, itd. | | | | | |Gripa, kozice, crljenac, zau?njaci,| | |velike boginje, ospice, vakcina, | |Virusi |psitakoza i omitoza, dje?ja kljenut| | |(poliomijelitis), razli?ite upale | | |mozga, papata?i groznica itd. | |Spirohete |Leptospiroze, povratni tifus, | | |sifilis | |Rikecije |Pjegavac, Q-groznica | |Protozoa |Malarija, amebijaza, leishmanijaza,| | |tripanosomijaza | |Gljivice |Aktinomikoza, blastomikoza, | | |sporotrihoza, monilijaza, | | |histoplasmoza itd. | |Nametnici metazoa |Gliste, trakavice (ehinokok), | | |trihinoza itd. | (7) 2. Nevidljivi mikrobi i virologija - povijesni pregled Razvoj virologije vezan je uz mnoge uporne znanstvenike, istra?iva?e koji su svojim radom doprinijeli pojedinoj povijesnoj eri. Puno prije nego ?to su znanstvenici mogli definirati prirodu specifi?nih virusa, virusne bolesti poput kozica i bjesno?e omogu?ile su zna?ajne i dramati?ne uzorke potencijalne preventivne inokulacije (tj. bakterizacije). Zbog zna?ajne promjene rije?i virus u posljednja dva tisu?lje?a, moderni ?e ?itatelj najvjerojatnije biti zbunjen pri pronalasku tog termina u starim tekstovima. Prvi i najop?enitije zna?enje virusa bilo je da je sluzav, vjerojatno neugodan, ali ne i nu?no opasan. Ipak, latinski su prevoditelji puno puta koristili taj izraz sa implikacijama da je virus ne?to otrovno, ne?to ?tetno za zdravlje ili nekakva misteriozna, nepoznata zarazna tvar. Prema tome su i rimski pisac Celsus i Loius Pasteur mogli pri?ati o virusu bjesno?e. Celsus (25.pr. Kr.-50.) je najpoznatiji po svojem djelu O medicini napisanoj u osam knjiga. Primarni je izvor o prehrani, farmaciji i operaciji. O virusu se pri?alo sve

How to Write a Philosophy Research Paper

How to Write a Philosophy Research Paper For Philosophy research papers, a detailed and prolonged study is required in order for an individual to handle these. In the advent of compiling a philosophy paper, the use of arguments is a great source of fun since the philosophy is entirely about peoples’ arguments on various topics. Generally, the first step towards handling a philosophy paper is thorough reading of ancient documents on the given topic, long before tackling the proposed paper. This gives a basic understanding of the topic at hand, hence, giving a clear picture of the existing philosophy. Reading long before tackling a particular philosophy topic helps in a proper reflection of the topic and, as a result, there is improvement in the overall quality of the paper tackled by such an individual. In addition, details of the various sources that were used, while obtaining the particular philosophical information, should be kept on record. This is done for the purpose of doing future research on the topic. The next step in writing a philosophy research paper is the outlining of the ideas presented. This is crucial in that it helps in the logical arrangement of philosophical ideas, so that they flow in the correct logical sequence, resulting in good work organization. In addition, logical presentation of ideas also results in a clear understanding of the topic by the reader. Reviewing the quality of the evidence to be given for personal interpretations and ideas is the third step in writing a quality philosophy research paper. This is because an individual is able to obtain and use strong evidence in the support of their arguments, hence their success in the exercise. The use of quality arguments is totally encouraged at this step of handling philosophical research papers. The forth step applied in handling a philosophical paper is ensuring that all the sentences are logical, precise and clear. This ensures a good flow of the presented arguments by the user. Since current research states that all philosophical documents must follow a specific format, the use of poor logic would result in poor performance, or disqualification, in the case of the philosophical document. The fifth step followed in handling a Philosophy research paper includes the provision of both primary, as well as secondary sources for the document at hand. Finally, the philosophical document is then reviewed several times before being handed in for marking. There is, as well, the additional possibility for you to order an effective research paper in philosophy that can be written for you, by a custom agency, online. Simply input the details of your future paper, instructions and requirements on the order form and stand aside. Your paper will be then completed and sent to you.

Gross Motor Activities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Gross Motor Activities - Essay Example Several activities go around in the child neighborhood; for example, there are manufacturing companies, construction companies, street clubs, schools, colleges and shopping malls among others. Most of the families that stay in the region love intermingling with each other, that is evident by the several social and support groups in the area. Children are often taken for a get-together party twice in a month, a place where they get to play and extensively interact with one another. The preschool that Brian attends is a private institution that is sponsored by the Catholic Church. Most of the children in the preschool mare aged between 3-4 years and they attend the school two days in a week and three days in a week respectively. Brian has a got a dog pet named boxy, which he stated that he loves its company and plays with it a lot. In essence, Brian is a charming and active child in the family who is dedicated to performing activities that are within his reach. Â  After obtaining consent from Brian’s Parents and permission from the school administration to perform my follow up on Brian, I began my case study at home and in school. In school, Brian is in the middle range of height among other pupils and sits in the front, the middle row in class. It can be stated that Brian is physically fit, this in relation to the various activities that the child is performing. For example, Brian can run around the classroom, arrange toys, push some objects that are about 3kg, jump and play some wrestling games with friends for a couple of minutes. A child who is physically fit is the one who can perform such activities; moreover, there is no physical deformity that Brian has. Â  Gross motor activities are those activities or movements that involve the use of the large muscle in the body such as of the hands, thighs, legs, and neck. It is imperative to note that the development of Gross motor activity begins as soon as a child is born.

International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

International Business - Essay Example Modern society belong to the world of globalization and liberalization. Most of the countries changed the rules and regulations to accommodate Globalization and Liberalization. The boundaries of such countries are open to MNC’s irrespective of their origin or culture. But the main problem is such MNC’s have monopolized the market and small companies found it extremely difficult to survive in the market. The entry of MNC’s mostly welcomed by the consumers since they are getting quality products at affordable prices. But the small local companies are unanimously opposing the entry of MNC’s because of their inability to compete with the MNC’s. Now the question is how far a government can open their doors for the MNC’s? Can a government keep a blind eye towards the needs of small local companies? How can a government protect the interest of small local companies after signing agreements with regional trading blocs? â€Å"Regional integration agreements (RIA), also known as regional trading blocs, have become one of the major international relations developments in recent years. Most industrial or developing nations belong to one or more RIAs, and there are many. It has been said that more than one third of all world trade takes place within RIAs and that percentage increases daily. The merits and demerits of foreign culture will be induced through the MNC’s which will be a threat to the tradition and culture of the country.

Making Solar Energy Economical PowerPoint Presentation

Making Solar Energy Economical - PowerPoint Presentation Example The demand for energy is dependent on properties of conversion means, technologies, and costs. Human energy makes use of resources that can be depleted in particular fossil fuels derived from the preferences. Market forces and cartels may guide a transition back to sources that are renewable. Energy as such has its effects and they come in terms of very heavy environmental costs. At the end of it they are incorporated into the energy cost and prices leading to overuse of energy and motivate policy inventions. Focusing on human utilization of the energy commodities and energy resources and the aftermath of that utilization is the main discussion of many experts. From an economist’s perspective the economic terminology, â€Å"energy† is inclusive of all energy resources and energy resources that have significant amounts of physical energy and as such can perform work. Partly, the study focuses on forces that lead economic agents to pursue alternatives in terms of other ec onomically efficient provision and use of energy resources and commodities. The role of alternative energy market and regulatory rules on the activities of producing energy is a point of consideration for these studies. There is a kind of energy that can be replenished in a short period of time called renewable energy, which comes from sources that frequently being recycled and usually less polluting than energy from fossil fuels. There are five main categories of renewable energy: wind and solar, biomass, geothermal, hydropower among which the solar energy, provided by heat and sunlight, has been utilized least yet. However, solar energy holds a number of benefits for societies and it has already proven to have positive effects on residential homes and industrial applications. For many years, the economic choice of energy to use has been solar energy in many industries. In this areas power is required at remote locations without government help, as the vast majority of systems used need few kilowatts of power. Also, solar energy is frequently used on transportation signaling. For example, offshore navigation buoys, lighthouses, and increasingly, road traffic warning signals are using solar power due to its power saving efficiency. Solar power’s great benefit here is that it is highly reliable and requires little maintenance so it is ideal to use in places that are hard to access. Following are some details of the major advantages of solar energy. Primarily, as mentioned above, solar power is particularly useful in remote areas where it is lack of regular electricity supply. Moreover, a lot of greenhouse gases such as nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide, mercury or sulphur dioxide that come from many traditional fuels have been kept from releasing into the atmosphere, and it greatly contributes to the decrease of harmful green house gas emissions. Accordingly, solar energy is extremely environmentally friendly. In addition, solar energy systems are free of c harge substantially on conservation and will last for a relatively long period. Once installed, there are no recurring costs. They do not require you to add any fuel. More solar panels can be set up in the future with your energy requirements increase. Energy security is the guarantee of a reliable and stable supply of energy at reasonable economic prices. Relying on main energy sources such as oil and

Theories in the marketing communication framework

Theories in the marketing communication framework According to Kotler (2003, p.563) A way of looking at the whole marketing process from the viewpoint of customer Fundamentally, marketing communication is the essential process to convey the message between corporations and consumers which is to make the target audience trust the brand and marketer Burnett (1993). It has the different methods to reach the audience but the main aim is to build the medium which can inform and persuade the consumers. Also, marketing communication is the method to establish the invisible relationship between firm and customers. To ensure the audience correctly received the message is primary step. By using marketing communication, consumers can understand about firms, products and brands (Kotler and Keller, 2006). One fact which needs to be noted is that the difference between advertising, marketing communication and promotion. It has been claimed that advertising is part of marketing mix which is wider and complex than advertising. However, it is hard t o distinguish the slight difference between. Therefore, they mean the same meaning in this report. Traditionally, there are several elements in the marketing communication which includes advertising, sales promotion, sponsorship, public relations, direct marketing, and personal selling (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). Even though there has been divided into several elements to distinguish the difference. There is still some room which is overlapped. Hence, it shows the importance of integrated marketing communication. Moreover, it has been claimed that there are some tools which also can be in the marketing communication mix such as packaging, word of mouth, point of sales, E-marketing and exhibitions. It has been stated that there are two categories, namely, above the line and below the line. Above-the-line include advertising which needs to pay the space for promotion such as TV commercial, radio or newspaper and magazine of press. Below the line consist of sales promotion and publi c relations (Smith and Taylor, 2004). The main reason to choose integrated marketing mix is that the message and information can extensively reach the target audience by all channels as well as more suitable and effective methods to achieve marketing communication objectives. By multi-channels promotion, it increase the awareness of brand and comprehend the message. After this, the purchase action could be expected happen by consumers Patrick et al., 2004, Smith and Taylor, 2004) Hence, each marketing communication mix element has the particular function to promote the brand in marketing campaigns. Nowadays, TV commercial, sponsorship, sales promotion are popular and essential marketing communication tools to be used in beer promotion campaign. Also, it has been found that words of mouth play the major role to influence the some beer customer. These marketing communication mix elements will the discussed as below. In beer promotion campaign, Advertising: Advertising is the primary element in the marketing communication mix. It is common to find that majority of audiences consider advertising equal to promotion. According to Kotler and Keller (2006) Any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of idea, goods or services by an identified sponsor. It is a general definition of advertising but shows the key point of characteristic which are the promotion for product or service by a sponsor. It has also been admitted that advertising is suitable to build the long term brand image and create the initial awareness. It is controversial issue to distinguish which element is the most influential one in the marketing mix. However, it still needs to be admitted that advertising take the majority part of promotion budget in the campaign regularly as well as widely reach the mass target audience. Furthermore, TV advertising would is arranged the most money because it costs more than other categories like press or radio. In other words, although advertising takes most spend of promotion, it is still the low cost for each unit person (Kotler and Armstrong, 2006). Therefore, from firms perspective, advertising seems to be the economical methods to reach most consumers (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). Moreover, advertising can play the major role to supplement the rest of tools which efficiently enhance the awareness of campaign and increase sales. For example, it is evidential that most sales promotion messages are conveyed by advertising to reach most audiences. In addition, public relations event such as event sponsorship needs the advertising support to announce the information which also can enhance the awareness (Burnett, 1992). However, there are some limitations of advertising which have been argued. Firstly, it is hard to prove that audience would purchase the products after receiving the commercial message. In other words, the sequenced process needs to be demonstrated more evidences. (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). Also, there are several vital cause which can influence the purchasing such as reasonable price, convenient location and quality product (Burnett, 1992). Therefore, advertising can be the influential facts to brand awareness and attitude. Even the direct effect for stimulating purchasing needs to be considered the relationship, it still can be the functional tools in marketing communications. Sponsorship: Sponsorship is in the sub-category of public relations which is to build a relationship and corporation image (Kotler and Armstrong, 2006). The definition of sponsorship is that the firms invest the money or in kind to expect the potential revenue to achieve the marketing objectives (Meenaghan, 1991; Berrett, 1993). In recent years, sponsorship has been popular and divided from public relations to be an independent tool in the marketing communication mix which show that the use of sponsorship is increasing and more different types of sponsorship are developing (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). Although most of firms keep a limited budget for sponsorship, in some sponsored activities the cost is still a great deal of money such as Carling sponsor as a title to Carling cup. Moreover, the world cup and Olympic both are the popular event which have attracted many aggressive sponsor to invest in it. It has been claimed that sport, arts, education and broadcast are the most popular categories for sponsorship (Smith and Taylor, 2004). It has been claimed that audiences can be aware of the sponsor brand and evoke the brand in the purchasing occasion which increase the brand recall and add the brand into the considered brand portfolio. The brand awareness would be higher than advertising promotion and get more involvement. Moreover, sponsor would evaluate the applicability of event which can be expected to convey the positive emotion and attitude to audiences. Therefore, sponsor expects to link the positive to their brand. In the sport, audiences also can be persuaded with the sport stars endorsement which can enhance the purchasing possibility (De Pelsmacker et al, 2004). It can be concluded that perfect sponsorship could to increase the positive attitude to sponsor and sponsored activities both. However, there are some potential risks of sponsorship which need to be noted. For example, the negative facts influence the sponsored entities which impact the sponsors directly or indirectly. It often happens in sport sponsorship like the sponsored teams or players do not play well in the match. It can be found that Carling and Guinness sponsor the different sport league not particular teams or player that would be a considered sponsorship strategies. In addition, overlapped sponsorship shows the extreme commercial image which could make audiences ignore the message (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). Hence, even sponsorship cost generally would be lower than advertising, it still need to be consider punctiliously. Ensuring the sponsored objective will be achieved and can be suitable to marketing communication objective. Also, budget and effectiveness measurement have to be planned in the process. After these, to integrate sponsorship into other communication mix element will reinforce the promotion campaign effectiveness (De Pelsmacker et al, 2004). Sales Promotion: Sale promotion is a short-term promotion to stimulate the consumer buying behaviour (Kotler and Armstrong, 2006). The function of sales promotion is not similar with other elements which to increase the long term relationship with consumers. It focuses to increase the sales immediately. There are two ways to achieve the sales. One of these is to encourage the current customers purchasing more products or another one is to attract the new customers attention to purchase. Therefore, it can be concluded that the features of sales promotion is to use simulative offers encourage the customers buy product in the limited time. Also, the measurement of sales promotion is easier to conduct than other communication mix tools (De Pelsmacker et al, 2004). Many tools can be used in the sales promotion such as couponing, sampling, premiums, contest and money-off. Those of instruments are planned to be used in different categories of products. Also, there are some particular sales promotion tools f or trade like point -of tail materials and merchandising. One fact which it needs to note is that sales promotion would be often implemented with advertising which can enhance the effectiveness of campaign. By using sales promotion information in advertising, it would be effective to encourage from awareness to purchase (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). Even though sales promotion has been admitted to increase short-term sales influentially, the long-term effect to the brand and sales also needs to be considered. It has been stated that consumers would be used to the price reduce and disregard the quality of products. Moreover, sales promotion would offer a reference price in their mind which makes them more sensitive to the price. Therefore, sales promotion would need more striking price promotion to attract the consumer in the future (De Pelsmacker et al, 2004). In beer industry, sales promotion is often used to compete with other brewers in special period like world cup or Xmas. The re also has some regular sales promotion which tried to be incentive for consumers. In recession, sales promotion are increasingly important to the total sale and integrate more communication mix elements to boost the sales. Hence, it can be expected that more sales promotion would be emphasized in the future. Words of mouth: Word of mouths is a strong medium for marketing communication. It is difficult to contend with friends recommendation by advertising or other communication mix elements. Also, it has been claimed that consumers are more likely to change their brand preference by advice than promotion mix. Thus, by people communication, experience, reputation and recommendation can be conveyed and believed effectively. Moreover, mass media has been claimed that it is not efficient to reach the besieged audience. Words of mouth can be the tool to break the barrier (Smith and Taylor, 2004). With the development of internet, the communication channel is convenient and the information is overload. The experience and feeling can be spread extremely fast which is not like other communication mix elements that could not be measured and control simply by promoters (Berrett, 1993). Even it is complicated to control words of mouth and ensure the content of communication to the brands or products, the impressive communication mix campaign could be the topic to be discussed and increase the positive attitude (Smith and Taylor, 2004). Therefore, words of mouth would be the most influential and uncontrollable part of marketing communication mix. Hierarchy of effect models: One of the prime theories in the marketing communication framework is hierarchy of effect model which logically explains the sequential tasks of marketing message influence. On other words, it affects the consumers awareness to purchase action which is assumed that the relative step would ideally push through to next process. First process is cognitive part which means consumers have received the message and like to awareness. Second process is affective part that shows the attitude and reaction to the promotion messages have been generate in the step. The final process is behaviour part which is the actual purchase to the promoted brand (De Pelsmacker et al, 2004). According to these three main processes, many different models have been created and AIDA is one of the models and often to be referred. AIDA: AIDA model is the fundamental theory in the hierarchy of effect model. It was created by Elmo Lewis who claimed that the influential process of marketing communication can be divided into four steps: Awareness, Interest, Desire and Action. It used to be used for sales training. However, it has been the most influential theory to explain marketing communication work nowadays. The model is explained that the process how to shift consumers from the beginning of unawareness to perceived the message and shows the reaction to action (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). Firstly, awareness is that the audiences have noticed and been aware of the promotion. Then, the audiences understand and believe the messages as well as feel interested to the advertising or brands. Following this, the message arouse consumer desire to look for this advertised product or brand. Finally, consumers do the action to purchase. In addition, it has been claimed that each marketing communication mix element can be influ ential to particular step in AIDA model. Firstly, Advertising and public are suitable to build awareness to make consumers know the brand as well as feel interested for the product. However, advertising are not effective to increase the immediate purchase. Meenaghan, T. (1991) The role of sponsorship in the marketing communications mix, International Journal of Advertising, 10 (1) pp.35-47 Berrett, T (1993) The sponsorship of amateur sport-government, national sport organization and corporate perspectives, Society and leisure, 16(2), 323 346. De Pelsmacker et al, (2004) Marketing Communications: A European Perspective, 2nd ed. Essex: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Overcoming Poverty Through Enlightenment Essay example -- Enlightened

Contents Introduction Part One: Song Lyric, â€Å"Wavin’ Flag†, K’NAAN Part Two: Essay, â€Å"What is Poverty?’ by Theodore Dalrymple Part Three: Documentary, â€Å"Solar Mamas† directed by J.Noujaim & M.Eldaief Part Four: Critical Analysis Introduction In the media form of a song, â€Å"Wavin’ Flag† by K’naan, an essay, â€Å"What is Poverty?† by Theodore Dalrymple and the documentary, Solar Mamas, directed by J.Noujaim & M.Eldaief the unifying message that is relevant through all these pieces of work is that in order to overcome poverty individuals must experience enlightenment. This essay will explore this topic in great detail. Part One: Song Lyric, â€Å"Wavin’ Flag†, K’NAAN In the song Wavin’ Flag by K’naan the message that is conveyed through the lyrics is despite what hardships an individual has faced they have the ability to overcome their struggle. The author of the song, K’naan comes from a war-torn country, Somalia where a civil war has displaced his family from their home. K’naan wrote of a struggling group who faces oppression and exploitation. Through the lyrics one can see the exploitation of the individuals, â€Å"But look how they treat us, make us believers/we fight their battles, then they deceive us.†(K’naan) Marxist theory can be applied to these lyrics, as the proletariat are being exploited by the bourgeoisie as a method of profit through their labour. The people are commoditized and are treated as such, they are considered expendable so the bourgeoisie do not care for their well-being. The use of allusion is evident in the lyrics, as it refers to the Somali civil war, where the people are used to fight a war through the promise of freedom, peace, and independence. Although the proletariat has become aware of their struggle,... ...s her home and that she has to take care of her children. She later reveals that she was embarrassed to tell him the truth, and the real reason for her return was that her husband threatened to divorce her and take her children away if she did not return home. The film allows the audience to see through the perspective of the women and they are able to better understand the truth because of the different perspectives it use in comparison to the single perspective in a song or essay. Works Cited Dalrymple, Theodore. "What Is Poverty? by Theodore Dalrymple, City Journal Spring 1999."City Journal. N.p., 1999. Web. 7 Mar. 2014. K'Naan. "Wavin' Flag." Rec. 2008. Troubadour. A&M/Octone, 2009. CD. Solar Mamas. Dir. Mona Eldaief and Jehane Noujaim. Perf. Rafea Anad. DOX, 2013. Film.

Topographic Map

MS 217 Dennis Borzakov Class 723 January 15, 2013 Problem HOW IS A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP MADE Hypothesis I think that to make a topographic map you have to see the form of the object from up top. To do this you need a satellite image. These images are called aerial photographs. Using elevation calculators and ground measures cartographers then make topographic maps. Materials †¢ Clay model landform †¢ Water tinted with food coloring †¢ Transparency †¢ Clear plastic storage box with lid †¢ Beaker †¢ Metric ruler †¢ Tape †¢ Transparency marker Procedure 1.Using the ruler and the transparency marker, make marks up the side of the storage box one centimeter apart. 2. Place the clay model into the storage box. The bottom of the box will be zero elevation. 3. Secure the transparency to the top of the storage box with tape. 4. Using the beaker, pour water into the box to a height of one cm. 5. Use the transparency marker to trace the top of the water line o n the transparency. 6. Using the scale 1cm=10m, mark the elevation on the line. 7. Remove the transparency and add water until a depth of 2cm is reached. 8. Map this level on the transparency and record the elevation. . Repeat the process of adding water and tracing until you have the hill mapped on the transparency. 10. Transfer the tracing of the hill onto a white sheet of paper. 11. Use the ruler to transfer the hill from the white sheet of paper to graph paper. Analysis The counter interval of this topographic map is 1cm is equal to 10 m. The distance between contour lines on the map show steepness of a slope on the landform model because the closer the lines are the steeper the hill is, the farther apart the lines are the more the gentle the rising of the hill will be.The elevation of Hill A is 80 meters and the elevation of Hill B is 90 meters. Elevation was presented on the map by the number of counter lines. The one with the most counter lines is the taller one. Conclusion I n this experiment we took on the job of a cartographer. We graphed clay model hills to express elevation. We traced images of the forms from the transparency to the white sheet of paper to express the difference in counter lines.

How Management Teams Can Have a Good Fight Essay

Summary How management teams can have a good fight? Everyone has his own answer. Related to O.B., what’s the new answer? In the case study, we discussed about â€Å"the forgotten group member† as group. We talked about â€Å"yes or no†, â€Å"why† and â€Å"how†. Every member can have his own idea, but we must reach an agreement as our group’s conclusion. This process is called â€Å"decision making†. During this process, if all the members’ own ideas are the same, that’s perfect! But most of the time the fact is someone says â€Å"yes†, and someone says â€Å"no†, and when we met the question like â€Å"why† and â€Å"how†, the answers became even more. Then the group meets an issue named â€Å"conflict†.This article, by Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, Jean L. Kahwaly, and L. J. Bourgeios â… ¢, focuses on conflict in the processes of the team decision making. Let’s return to the first questio n that how management teams can have a good fight. The business professors make their research based on observing how the groups managing the interpersonal conflicts. The research about interplay of conflict, polictics, and speed in strategic decision making by top management teams last for 10 years. The objects to be observed are 12 top-management teams in technology-based companies. As shown, in 4 of the 12 companies, there was little or no substantive disagreement over major issues and therefore little conflict to observe. And the other 8 companies experienced considerable conflict. In 4 of the 8 companies, the top-management teams handled conflict in a way that avoided interpersonal hostility or discord. Managers in those companies referred to their colleagues as smart, team player, and best in the business. They described the way they work as a team as open, fun, and productive. The managers vigorously debated the issues, but they wasted little time on politicking and posturing. The other 4 companies in which issues were contested were less successful at avoiding interpersonal conflict. The executives used words such as manipulative, secretive, burned out, and political to describe their colleagues. What made the difference between the 2 types of teams? The authors identify 6 key tactics used by all of the teams that were able to keep interpersonal conflict to a minimum. * Focus on the facts * Multiply the alternatives * Create common goals * Use humor * Balance the power structure * Seek consensus with qualification 1. Focus on the facts It means more information more better. Fact Data Fact Data Guess Opinion Guess Opinion Let’s compare the 2 groups of words: Which do you think is more personal? When we talk about the left group, mostly we summarize it as â€Å"subjective†. The right group is usually summarized as â€Å"objective†. The teams with minimal interpersonal conflicts always work with more, rather than less objective and current information and data, such as reviewed bookings, backlogs, margins, engineering milestones, cash, scrap, and work-in-process every week or every month. Some team even claims to â€Å"measure everything†. Facts encourage people to focus on issues, not personalities and let people move quickly to the central issues surrounding a strategic choice. Building decisions on facts creates a culture that emphasizes issues instead of personalities. Therefore, the debate will be much more constructive. 2. Multiply the alternatives It means more options, more better. Look at the picture, If I ask that what’s this or whether this is the sun or the moon, there are only 2 alternatives. Thus usually we easily fall into the arguments about black and white. Multiple options allow more exploration of the gray areas, and lead to more creative solutions that integrate key points of the various alternatives. Maybe you can say this is a cake, an egg, or anything else. Someone maybe consider that more choices can increase the conflict, but the research shows that multiple alternatives can lower interpersonal conflict. For one, it diffuses conflict. The individuals gain more room to vary the degree of their support over a range of choices. Managers can more easily shift positions without losing face. The team ended up combining elements of several options in a way that was more robust than any of the options were individually. 3. Create common goals It means let’s go there! A third tactic for minimizing destructive conflict involves framing strategic choices as collaborative. The successful groups we studied consistently framed their decisions as collaborations in which it was in everyone’s interest to achieve the best possible solution for the collective. During the process of decision making, when team members are working toward a common goal, they are less likely to see themselves as individual winners and losers and are far more likely to perceive the opinions of others correctly and to learn from them. For example, let’s discuss the first trip for practice. Our common goal is to go to Pattya. Then we discuss how we shall go. Shall we go there by minibus, taxi or airline? But if someone wants to go to Rayong and another wants to go to Huahin, a lot of time will be wasted in the argument. So, the common goals do not imply homogeneous thinking, but they do let everyone share a vision. 4. Use humor It means Inject humor into the decision process. In our class, there is a very cute and funny guy, his name is Pop. Every time when we do the case discussion in-class, every time when Pop raises his hand, what do you guys expect? For me, I am ready to smile or laugh. So what is the influence of laugh? * We will have good mood. * The pressures will be lower. * We can get the information from others more easily than in the stressful situations. According to the research, people in a positive mood tend to be not only more optimistic but also more forgiving of others and creative in seeking solutions. So when our group tries to make a decision, such positive mood will trigger a more accurate perception of others’ argument, because people in a good mood tend to relax their defensive barriers and so can listen more effective. Humor works as defense mechanism to protect people from the stressful and threatening situations that commonly arise in the course of making strategic decisions. 5. Balance the power structure It means (focus on equity) to create a sense of fairness by balancing power with in the management team. Most people will accept decisions they disagree with if they feel the process was fair. In the balanced power structures, the CEO is still more powerful than the other members of the top-management team, but the members do wield substantial power, especially in their own well-defined areas of responsibility. The teams with high interpersonal conflict are mostly found that the leaders are autocratic or weak. 6. Seek consensus with qualification It means give the chance to everyone to bring his idea. In the process of decision making, the teams that managed conflicts effectively all used a two step process that is called consensus with qualification that is when the teams meet an issue, the members will talk over it and try to reach consensus. If they can, the decision is made. If they can’t, the most relevant senior manager makes the decision, guided by input from the rest of the group. Individuals are willing to accept outcomes they dislike if they believe that the process by which those results came about was fair. So how does consensus with qualification create a sense of fairness? Most people just want their opinions to be considered seriously but to prevail. So just encourage everyone to bring ideas to the table. If the members can effectively join the process of decision making, the interpersonal conflict will be minimized. Linking conflict, speed, and performance The healthy conflict can make better decision and make the teams move more quickly as well. Without conflict, groups lose their effectiveness and lower performance. Managers often become withdrawn and only superficially harmonious. So let’s return to the first question that †how management teams can have a good fight?† The key to doing so is to mitigate interpersonal conflict. Well, how teams argue but still get along? That’s the content of this presentation. Tactic| Strategy| 1.Base discussion on current, factual information| Focus on issues, not personalities| 2.Develop multiple alternatives to enrich the debate| | 3.Rally around goals| Frame decisions as collaborations aimed at achieving the best possible solution for the company| 4.Inject humor into the decision-making process| | 5.Maintain balanced power structure| Establish a sense of fairness and equity in the process| 6.Resolve issues without forcing consensus| | Critique Overall evaluation This is an article with clear thinking. The authors got their conclusion through long time research based on objective observe and numerous data, which is the way that analyzing the problem and exploring the root of the problem. How management teams can have a good fight? Effective decision making, implement it positively How to deal with the conflict during the decision making process? Manage interpersonal conflict effectively How to manage interpersonal conflict effectively? 6 tactics— Focus on the facts Multiply the alternatives Create common goals Use humor Balance the power structure Seek consensus with qualification The 6 tactics that the authors summarized are very direct and crucial. They seize the key of the problem-solving. During the process of discussing each tactic, they demonstrate the point by real case and data which are very convincing. In the last part of the article, the authors link conflict, speed, and performance to form a path of solving problem, the title of the article is got the answer. After reading this article, my gain involves 3 aspects as following: First, the article answered the question about how to manage the conflicts during the process of group’s decision making. During the decision making process by groups, it’s normal and natural that the group encountered disagreements and conflicts. The critical thing of decision making by groups is to managing the conflicts. After reading the article, I have got the clear answer to solve the problem. Second, â€Å"how management teams can have a good fight† is a complicate subject. However the authors analyzed the issue and finally focused on a small and crucial topic to solve the problem. Understand such professional ways to analyze problem is very useful for me. It inspires me that â€Å"questioned—explore the root of the question—research—analyze—generalize and related to the major subject†. Finally, the method used by the authors that gathering data and analyzing with the objective facts are very objective and scientific. It’s also very valuable for me. Weakness When I finished the article reading, I have a question, maybe I shouldn’t not describe it as weakness. Among the 12 management teams in technology-based companies which the authors observed and researched, 8 companies that experienced considerable conflicts, which is the main data source for research. For the other 4 companies, because there was little or no substantive disagreement over major issues and therefore were not discussed. In my opinion, if the major goal of the research is only to discussing the conflict from decision making by groups, then there are no problem that the authors did not discuss the case of these 4 companies, because the case have no value for the research. But, the authors are trying to discuss how management teams can have a good fight. And actually the case of these 4 companies also occupies one-third of the feedback data. It exists there indeed. However it was not mentioned by the authors in the article. I am curious about the case that there was little or no substantive disagreement over major issues, why the disagreement is so little? What situation will it lead to? Will it also make the organization to have a good performance and get a good fight? If the authors had talked about this, we would get clearer idea.

Evolution Essays - Evolutionary Biology, Biological Evolution

Evolution Essays - Evolutionary Biology, Biological Evolution Evolution The origins of mankind is an extremely controversial issue within todays society. Scientists have a host of different theories pertaining to mans inhabitance of earth. Many disagreements arise between scientists who have different beliefs pertaining to where and how mankind arose. One such argument is the conflict involving the theory of evolution versus the theory of creation. After extensive scientific research, it is apparent that the theory of evolution is correct. Evolution is the theory that life arose by natural processes at an early stage of the earths history and that complex organisms developed from simpler organisms by a process of slow change (Coren 209). Its the idea that new species arise from older species after thousands of years of gradual chemical, environmental, and genetic change (Coren 142). Evolution can also be described as the complex processes by which living organisms originated on earth and have been diversified and modified through sustained changes in form and function (Evolution). Scientists, looking for an explanation to the origin of man and other organisms created this evolutionism theory, which also presented answers to the many asked questions dealing with similarities between species. Unlike the theory of creation, which states that the complexity of life and different species can only be explained in terms of a supernatural creator or god who placed life on earth, the theory of evolution has a plethora of evidence proving it to be true (Creation). There are several different types of observations that support the theory of organic evolution as an explanation for the similarities and the differences among species. One such observation is in the geologic record. The geologic record is the rock scheme found within the earths outer crust. By means of radioactive dating, the ages of rocks in many places on earth have been determined. Its a timetable of the earths geologic history. This combined with the fossil record, another observation supporting the evolutionary hypothesis, has produced an apparent sequence of life forms from most simple to most complex during the history of the planet. Fossils are any remains or traces of a once-living organism, which are formed by preservation, petrifaction, or sedimentation. Organisms can be preserved and protected against decay by being trapped in amber, tar, or frozen in ice. The hard parts of an organism, such as shells or bones, can be preserved when the flesh of an organism has decayed a way. In other cases, materials of a dead organism may be gradually washed away and replaced by minerals from the water causing the organism to petrify, or harden. Imprints, molds, or casts left by an organism after it is enclosed in sedimentary rock and decomposed are also fossils, as well as footprints and tracks. The fossil record is the timetable of fossils found in within the earths geologic record. Since the upper layers of sedimentary rocks are assumed to have been laid down over lower layers, the upper layers are younger than those deeper into the earth. Therefore, fossils found within the upper layers are also younger than those found within the lower layers. This combination of geologic and fossil records shows the progression of species as time also progressed (Coren 142). In reiterating the definition of evolution, we are reminded that gradual changes in one life forms anatomy, cytology, embryology, or biochemistry could cause for a new species to originate. Similarities in these categories link species together and are therefore studied to support evolutionism. In comparing anatomy, the structures of different organisms often show unexpected similarities. Cell organelles, such as cell membranes, ribosomes, and other structures found within cells, are also similar in organisms of all kinds, showing that comparative cytology can also shows signs of evolution. When comparing the embryos of different organisms, comparative embryology, similarities can be seen in early stages of embryos that are completely different at maturity. Finally, comparative biochemistry, which is the comparing of biochemical compounds, such as amino acids, can also show similarities in species, reinforcing the idea of evolution (Coren 143). As curiosity rose throughout much of the world, scientists began to question the existence of organisms and why some are so alike in so many ways and so diverse as well. Several theories have been proposed in

The Sandplay Therapy Process. Images of the Self (Estelle L. Weinrib) Essay

The Sandplay Therapy Process. Images of the Self (Estelle L. Weinrib) 2004 Review - Essay Example The children and their metal status decide their life and their behavior. The author relates the theories proposed by scientists like Neumann and Jung are portrayed in such a way that the reader gets a complete idea about the sandplay treatment. The theory of Neumann concentrates more on the psychological aspects of a person. The psychic development and its effects are clearly depicted and the consciousness level of a person is also explained. (Weinrib, 2004).The author also provides information about the development in childhood. The major part of childhood development relies on the psychological factors and they in turn decide the character of the children. Children's ego must be developed in a healthy environment since the environment where the children grow play a vital part in their life. The psychological factors and the role they play in a child's life are referred with the help of Jung's theories. Jung's theories were based on the connection between the unconscious self. The sandplay which was first found by Dr.Margaret, was considered to be the best treatment that identified the problems in the children. Sandplay treatment did not make use of any explicit medical equipment. It treated the children in such a way that the result was effective. The author stroke the difference between the normal verbal treatment and the sandplay treatment. ... Psychology was an important concept and the doctors had to strike a balance between these factors and the emotions. The deeper thoughts and mental states were examined before the beginning of the treatment. The mentality of the children and their mental state has been clearly defined in the book. The author has emphasized on the fact that the child's feelings and emotions can be caught with the help of sandplay. (Weinrib, 2004).The treatment initially began from the idea of Dr.Margaret with an effort to treat children without disturbing their mental status. Since the psychological part of a person decides their life, the treatment concentrated more on those aspects. Sandplay Treatment Sandplay treatment helped people to express their anger, fear and other emotions. The treatment also helped them to get back to their normal status within a very short period of time. Jung's theory also stated that the other issues related to developmental problems and behavioral attributes were also resolved using this treatment. The major goal of Jung's therapy was to help the children to become normal without any psychological disorders. After its introduction, the treatment became popular within a short period and most of the doctors preferred this type of treatment. The effort of Jung became successful and thus the problem that prevailed was resolved easily. The concept of this treatment was derived from the way the children expressed their feelings while handling the miniatures. Children who played with miniature dolls showed their anger and frustration which they had with their family members or with their friends. They

UC transfer personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

UC transfer - Personal Statement Example Volunteering in the computer club of my college gave me a deep insight in the extensive world of computers. I have a strong flare to work for social causes such as charity work which provides me with inner satisfaction and peace of mind. I feel proud to mention that I have been deeply involved in causes such as helping my professor clear trash on the beach several times. The complexity of computing and its use in the real world fascinates me, like helping the human genome plan for technical development, algorithmic skills for raising the effectiveness of economical markets to generating the digital transformation from the internet to other equipments that are wireless. Owing to my keen fascination with the subject I have had the advantages of reading some books on programming on my own which includes â€Å"The art of computer programming† by Donald Kuthe by Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman and â€Å"Programming pearls† by Jon Bentley. These books have provided me w ith a thorough knowledge of programming software and computing. I plan to have computing as my major in the university as my deep interest in the subject would guide me towards a bright future. Being a cool, calm and collected person, I take pleasure in the challenge of solving problem with explicit answers. My inventiveness assists me in accepting innovative ideas, these aspects of my personality compels me towards the field of computing and programming. As Gail Devers said â€Å"Keep your dreams alive. Understand to achieve anything requires faith and belief in yourself, vision, hard work, determination and dedication. Remember all things are possible for those who believe† I want to live my dream of leading a successful career in computing. Before enrolling in the Santa Barbara, I first studied in a language school called â€Å"Kaplan† for five months. For the past two years in SBCC I have

Enviroment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Enviroment - Essay Example re not controlled by forest guards and other environmental conservationists in conjunction with the citizens, then reforestation is all that will be done and before those trees grow to curb the carbon dioxide, it will be several decades. Widespread destruction of forests is one of the setbacks that is being experienced not only in United States but in other continents too like Australia and this has meant that the governments are spending most of their conservation resources meant to benefit the future generation’s environment fighting these fires. This impact negatively on the rest of the population who have to continue waiting before the environment becomes better. The Copenhagen Agreement of 2009 is a continuation of the Kyoto Protocol and is aimed on ensuring climate change impacts are dealt with not only on paper but on the ground too. It especially focuses on cutting deeply the global emissions which are the greatest headache for climate change (Fabra and Mackenzie, 295). Blevins, Gene. â€Å"Wildfire grows chases thousands out of Southern Calif. Forest.† NBCnews, 3/9/2012. Retrieved from:

Democratic Origins and Revolutionary Writers, 1776-1820 Essay Example for Free

Democratic Origins and Revolutionary Writers, 1776-1820 Essay James Fenimore Cooper (Photo courtesy Library of Congress) The hard-fought American Revolution against Britain (1775-1783) was the first modern war of liberation against a colonial power. The triumph of American independence seemed to many at the time a divine sign that America and her people were destined for greatness. Military victory fanned nationalistic hopes for a great new literature. Yet with the exception of outstanding political writing, few works of note appeared during or soon after the Revolution. American books were harshly reviewed in England. Americans were painfully aware of their excessive dependence on English literary models. The search for a native literature became a national obsession. As one American magazine editor wrote, around 1816, Dependence is a state of degradation fraught with disgrace, and to be dependent on a foreign mind for what we can ourselves produce is to add to the crime of indolence the weakness of stupidity. Cultural revolutions, unlike military revolutions, cannot be successfully imposed but must grow from the soil of shared experience. Revolutions are expressions of the heart of the people; they grow gradually out of new sensibilities and wealth of experience. It would take 50 years of accumulated history for America to earn its cultural independence and to produce the first great generation of American writers: Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, and Emily Dickinson. Americas literary independence was slowed by a lingering identification with England, an excessive imitation of English or classical literary models, and difficult economic and political conditions that hampered publishing. Revolutionary writers, despite their genuine patriotism, were of necessity self-conscious, and they could never find roots in their American sensibilities. Colonial writers of the revolutionary generation had been born English, had grown to maturity as English citizens, and had cultivated English modes of thought and English fashions in dress and behavior. Their parents and grandparents were English (or European), as were all their friends. Added to this, American awareness of literary fashion still lagged behind the English, and this time lag intensified American imitation. Fifty years after their fame in England, English neoclassic writers such as Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, Oliver Goldsmith, and Samuel Johnson were still eagerly imitated in America. Moreover, the heady challenges of building a new nation attracted talented and educated people to politics, law, and diplomacy. These pursuits brought honor, glory, and financial security. Writing, on the other hand, did not pay. Early American writers, now separated from England, effectively had no modern publishers, no audience, and no adequate legal protection. Editorial assistance, distribution, and publicity were rudimentary. Until 1825, most American authors paid printers to publish their work. Obviously only the leisured and independently wealthy, like Washington Irving and the New York Knickerbocker group, or the group of Connecticut poets known as the Hartford Wits, could afford to indulge their interest in writing. The exception, Benjamin Franklin, though from a poor family, was a printer by trade and could publish his own work. Charles Brockden Brown was more typical. The author of several interesting Gothic romances, Brown was the first American author to attempt to live from his writing. But his short life ended in poverty. The lack of an audience was another problem. The small cultivated audience in America wanted well-known European authors, partly out of the exaggerated respect with which former colonies regarded their previous rulers. This preference for English works was not entirely unreasonable, considering the inferiority of American output, but it worsened the situation by depriving American authors of an audience. Only journalism offered financial remuneration, but the mass audience wanted light, undemanding verse and short topical essays not long or experimental work. The absence of adequate copyright laws was perhaps the clearest cause of literary stagnation. American printers pirating English best-sellers understandably were unwilling to pay an American author for unknown material. The unauthorized reprinting of foreign books was originally seen as a service to the colonies as well as a source of profit for printers like Franklin, who reprinted works of the classics and great European books to educate the American public. Printers everywhere in America followed his lead. There are notorious examples of pirating. Matthew Carey, an important American publisher, paid a London agent a sort of literary spy to send copies of unbound pages, or even proofs, to him in fast ships that could sail to America in a month. Careys men would sail out to meet the incoming ships in the harbor and speed the pirated books  into print using typesetters who divided the book into sections and worked in shifts around the clock. Such a pirated English book could be reprinted in a day and placed on the shelves for sale in American bookstores almost as fast as in England. Because imported authorized editions were more expensive and could not compete with pirated ones, the copyright situation damaged foreign authors such as Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens, along with American authors. But at least the foreign authors had already been paid by their original publishers and were already well known. Americans such as James Fenimore Cooper not only failed to receive adequate payment, but they had to suffer seeing their works pirated under their noses. Coopers first successful book, The Spy (1821), was pirated by four different printers within a month of its appearance. Ironically, the copyright law of 1790, which allowed pirating, was nationalistic in intent. Drafted by Noah Webster, the great lexicographer who later compiled an American dictionary, the law protected only the work of American authors; it was felt that English writers should look out for themselves. Bad as the law was, none of the early publishers were willing to have it changed because it proved profitable for them. Piracy starved the first generation of revolutionary American writers; not surprisingly, the generation after them produced even less work of merit. The high point of piracy, in 1815, corresponds with the low point of American writing. Nevertheless, the cheap and plentiful supply of pirated foreign books and classics in the first 50 years of the new country did educate Americans, including the first great writers, who began to make their appearance around 1825. THE AMERICAN ENLIGHTENMENT The 18th-century American Enlightenment was a movement marked by an emphasis on rationality rather than tradition, scientific inquiry instead of unquestioning religious dogma, and representative government in place of monarchy. Enlightenment thinkers and writers were devoted to the ideals of justice, liberty, and equality as the natural rights of man. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Benjamin Franklin, whom the Scottish philosopher David Hume called Americas first great man of letters, embodied the Enlightenment ideal of humane rationality. Practical yet idealistic, hard-working and enormously successful, Franklin recorded his early life in his famous Autobiography. Writer, printer, publisher, scientist, philanthropist, and diplomat, he was the most famous and respected private figure of his time. He was the first great self-made man in America, a poor democrat born in an aristocratic age that his fine example helped to liberalize. Franklin was a second-generation immigrant. His Puritan father, a chandler (candle-maker), came to Boston, Massachusetts, from England in 1683. In many ways Franklins life illustrates the impact of the Enlightenment on a gifted individual. Self-educated but well-read in John Locke, Lord Shaftesbury, Joseph Addison, and other Enlightenment writers, Franklin learned from them to apply reason to his own life and to break with tradition in particular the old-fashioned Puritan tradition when it threatened to smother his ideals. While a youth, Franklin taught himself languages, read widely, and practiced writing for the public. When he moved from Boston to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Franklin already had the kind of education associated with the upper classes. He also had the Puritan capacity for hard, careful work, constant self-scrutiny, and the desire to better himself. These qualities steadily propelled him to wealth, respectability, and honor. Never selfish, Franklin tried to help other ordinary people become successful by sharing his insights and initiating a characteristically American genre the self-help book. Franklins Poor Richards Almanack, begun in 1732 and published for many years, made Franklin prosperous and well-known throughout the colonies. In this annual book of useful encouragement, advice, and factual information, amusing characters such as old Father Abraham and Poor Richard exhort the reader in pithy, memorable sayings. In The Way to Wealth, which originally appeared in the Almanack, Father Abraham, a plain clean old Man, with white Locks, quotes Poor Richard at length. A Word to the Wise is enough, he says. God helps them that help themselves. Early to Bed, and early to rise, makes a Man healthy, wealthy, and wise. Poor Richard is a psychologist (Industry pays Debts, while Despair encreaseth them), and he always counsels hard work (Diligence is the Mother of Good Luck). Do not be lazy, he advises, for One To-day is worth two tomorrow. Sometimes he creates anecdotes to illustrate his points: A little Neglect may breed great Mischief. For want of a Nail the Shoe was lost; for want of a Shoe the Horse was lost; and for want of a Horse the Rider was lost, being overtaken and slain by the Enemy, all for want of Care about a Horse-shoe Nail. Franklin was a genius at compressing a moral point: What maintains one Vice, would bring up two Children. A small leak will sink a great Ship. Fools make Feasts, and wise Men eat them. Franklins Autobiography is, in part, another self-help book. Written to advise his son, it covers only the early years. The most famous section describes his scientific scheme of self- improvement. Franklin lists 13 virtues: temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity, and humility. He elaborates on each with a maxim; for example, the temperance maxim is Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Elevation. A pragmatic scientist, Franklin put the idea of perfectibility to the test, using himself as the experimental subject. To establish good habits, Franklin invented a reusable calendrical record book in which he worked on one virtue each week, recording each lapse with a black spot. His theory prefigures psychological behaviorism, while his systematic method of notation anticipates modern behavior modification. The project of self-improvement blends the Enlightenment belief in perfectibility with the Puritan habit of moral self-scrutiny. Franklin saw early that writing could best advance his ideas, and he therefore deliberately perfected his supple prose style, not as an end in itself but as a tool. Write with the learned. Pronounce with the vulgar, he advised. A scientist, he followed the Royal (scientific) Societys 1667 advice to use a close, naked, natural way of speaking; positive expressions, clear senses, a native easiness, bringing all things as near the mathematical plainness as they can. Despite his prosperity and fame, Franklin never lost his democratic sensibility, and he was an important figure at the 1787 convention at which the U. S. Constitution was drafted. In his later years, he was president of an antislavery association. One of his last efforts was to promote universal public education. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur (1735-1813) Another Enlightenment figure is Hector St. John de Crevecoeur, whose Letters from an American Farmer (1782) gave Europeans a glowing idea of opportunities for peace, wealth, and pride in America. Neither an American nor a farmer, but a French aristocrat who owned a plantation outside New York City before the Revolution, Crevecoeur enthusiastically praised the colonies for their industry, tolerance, and growing prosperity in 12 letters that depict America as an agrarian paradise a vision that would inspire Thomas Jefferson, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and many other writers up to the present. Crevecoeur was the earliest European to develop a considered view of America and the new American character. The first to exploit the melting pot image of America, in a famous passage he asks: What then is the American, this new man? He is either a European, or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country. I could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose wife was Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present four sons have now four wives of different nations. Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause changes in the world. THE POLITICAL PAMPHLET: Thomas Paine (1737-1809) The passion of Revolutionary literature is found in pamphlets, the most popular form of political literature of the day. Over 2,000 pamphlets were published during the Revolution. The pamphlets thrilled patriots and threatened loyalists; they filled the role of drama, as they were often read aloud in public to excite audiences. American soldiers read them aloud in their camps; British Loyalists threw them into public bonfires. Thomas Paines pamphlet Common Sense sold over 100,000 copies in the first three months of its publication. It is still rousing today. The cause of America is in a great measure the cause of all mankind, Paine wrote, voicing the idea of American exceptionalism still strong in the United States that in some fundamental sense, since America is a democratic experiment and a country theoretically open to all immigrants, the fate of America foreshadows the fate of humanity at large. Political writings in a democracy had to be clear to appeal to the voters. And to have informed voters, universal education was promoted by many of the founding fathers. One indication of the vigorous, if simple, literary life was the proliferation of newspapers. More newspapers were read in America during the Revolution than anywhere else in the world. Immigration also mandated a simple style. Clarity was vital to a newcomer, for whom English might be a second language. Thomas Jeffersons original draft of the Declaration of Independence is clear and logical, but his committees modifications made it even simpler. The Federalist Papers, written in support of the Constitution, are also lucid, logical arguments, suitable for debate in a democratic nation. NEOCLASSISM: EPIC, MOCK EPIC, AND SATIRE Unfortunately, literary writing was not as simple and direct as political writing. When trying to write poetry, most educated authors stumbled into the pitfall of elegant neoclassicism. The epic, in particular, exercised a fatal attraction. American literary patriots felt sure that the great American Revolution naturally would find expression in the epic a long, dramatic narrative poem in elevated language, celebrating the feats of a legendary hero. Many writers tried but none succeeded. Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), one of the group of writers known as the Hartford Wits, is an example. Dwight, who eventually became the president of Yale University, based his epic, The Conquest of Canaan (1785), on the Biblical story of Joshuas struggle to enter the Promised Land. Dwight cast General Washington, commander of the American army and later the first president of the United States, as Joshua in his allegory and borrowed the couplet form that Alexander Pope used to translate Homer. Dwights epic was as boring as it was ambitious. English critics demolished it; even Dwights friends, such as John Trumbull (1750-1831), remained unenthusiastic. So much thunder and lightning raged in the melodramatic battle scenes that Trumbull proposed that the epic be provided with lightning rods. Not surprisingly, satirical poetry fared much better than serious verse. The mock epic genre encouraged American poets to use their natural voices and did not lure them into a bog of pretentious and predictable patriotic sentiments and faceless conventional poetic epithets out of the Greek poet Homer and the Roman poet Virgil by way of the English poets. In mock epics like John Trumbulls good-humored MFingal (1776-82), stylized emotions and conventional turns of phrase are ammunition for good satire, and the bombastic oratory of the revolution is itself ridiculed. Modeled on the British poet Samuel Butlers Hudibras, the mock epic derides a Tory, MFingal. It is often pithy, as when noting of condemned criminals facing hanging: No man eer felt the halter draw With good opinion of the law. MFingal went into over 30 editions, was reprinted for a half-century, and was appreciated in England as well as America. Satire appealed to Revolutionary audiences partly because it contained social comment and criticism, and political topics and social problems were the main subjects of the day. The first American comedy to be performed, The Contrast (produced 1787) by Royall Tyler (1757-1826), humorously contrasts Colonel Manly, an American officer, with Dimple, who imitates English fashions. Naturally, Dimple is made to look ridiculous. The play introduces the first Yankee character, Jonathan. Another satirical work, the novel Modern Chivalry, published by Hugh Henry Brackenridge in installments from 1792 to 1815, memorably lampoons the excesses of the age. Brackenridge (1748- 1816), a Scottish immigrant raised on the American frontier, based his huge, picaresque novel on Don Quixote; it describes the misadventures of Captain Farrago and his stupid, brutal, yet appealingly human, servant Teague ORegan. POET OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: Philip Freneau (1752-1832). One poet, Philip Freneau, incorporated the new stirrings of European Romanticism and escaped the imitativeness and vague universality of the Hartford Wits. The key to both his success and his failure was his passionately democratic spirit combined with an inflexible temper. The Hartford Wits, all of them undoubted patriots, reflected the general cultural conservatism of the educated classes. Freneau set himself against this holdover of old Tory attitudes, complaining of the writings of an aristocratic, speculating faction at Hartford, in favor of monarchy and titular distinctions. Although Freneau received a fine education and was as well acquainted with the classics as any Hartford Wit, he embraced liberal and democratic causes. From a Huguenot (radical French Protestant) background, Freneau fought as a militiaman during the Revolutionary War. In 1780, he was captured and imprisoned in two British ships, where he almost died before his family managed to get him released. His poem The British Prison Ship is a bitter condemnation of the cruelties of the British, who wished to stain the world with gore. This piece and other revolutionary works, including Eutaw Springs, American Liberty, A Political Litany, A Midnight Consultation, and George the Thirds Soliloquy, brought him fame as the Poet of the American Revolution. Freneau edited a number of journals during his life, always mindful of the great cause of democracy. When Thomas Jefferson helped him establish the militant, anti-Federalist National Gazette in 1791, Freneau became the first powerful, crusading newspaper editor in America, and the literary predecessor of William Cullen Bryant, William Lloyd Garrison, and H.L. Mencken. As a poet and editor, Freneau adhered to his democratic ideals. His popular poems, published in newspapers for the average reader, regularly celebrated American subjects. The Virtue of Tobacco concerns the indigenous plant, a mainstay of the southern economy, while The Jug of Rum celebrates the alcoholic drink of the West Indies, a crucial commodity of early American trade and a major New World export. Common American characters lived in The Pilot of Hatteras, as well as in poems about quack doctors and bombastic evangelists. Freneau commanded a natural and colloquial style appropriate to a genuine democracy, but he could also rise to refined neoclassic lyricism in often-anthologized works such as The Wild Honeysuckle (1786), which evokes a sweet-smelling native shrub. Not until the American Renaissance that began in the 1820s would American poetry surpass the heights that Freneau had scaled 40 years earlier. Additional groundwork for later literary achievement was laid during the early years. Nationalism inspired publications in many fields, leading to a new appreciation of things American. Noah Webster (1758-1843) devised an American Dictionary, as well as an important reader and speller for the schools. His Spelling Book sold more than 100 million copies over the years. Updated Websters dictionaries are still standard today. The American Geography, by Jedidiah Morse, another landmark reference work, promoted knowledge of the vast and expanding American land itself. Some of the most interesting if nonliterary writings of the period are the journals of frontiersmen and explorers such as Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809) and  Zebulon Pike (1779-1813), who wrote accounts of expeditions across the Louisiana Territory, the vast portion of the North American continent that Thomas Jefferson purchased from Napoleon in 1803. WRITERS OF FICTION. The first important fiction writers widely recognized today, Charles Brockden Brown, Washington Irving, and James Fenimore Cooper, used American subjects, historical perspectives, themes of change, and nostalgic tones. They wrote in many prose genres, initiated new forms, and found new ways to make a living through literature. With them, American literature began to be read and appreciated in the United States and abroad. Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810) Already mentioned as the first professional American writer, Charles Brockden Brown was inspired by the English writers Mrs. Radcliffe and English William Godwin. (Radcliffe was known for her terrifying Gothic novels; a novelist and social reformer, Godwin was the father of Mary Shelley, who wrote Frankenstein and married English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. ) Driven by poverty, Brown hastily penned four haunting novels in two years: Wieland (1798), Arthur Mervyn (1799), Ormond (1799), and Edgar Huntley (1799). In them, he developed the genre of American Gothic. The Gothic novel was a popular genre of the day featuring exotic and wild settings, disturbing psychological depth, and much suspense. Trappings included ruined castles or abbeys, ghosts, mysterious secrets, threatening figures, and solitary maidens who survive by their wits and spiritual strength. At their best, such novels offer tremendous suspense and hints of magic, along with profound explorations of the human soul in extremity. Critics suggest that Browns Gothic sensibility expresses deep anxieties about the inadequate social institutions of the new nation. Brown used distinctively American settings. A man of ideas, he dramatized scientific theories, developed a personal theory of fiction, and championed high literary standards despite personal poverty. Though flawed, his works are darkly powerful. Increasingly, he is seen as the precursor of romantic writers like Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. He expresses subconscious fears that the outwardly optimistic Enlightenment period drove underground. Washington Irving (1789-1859). The youngest of 11 children born to a well-to-do New York merchant family, Washington Irving became a cultural and diplomatic ambassador to Europe, like Benjamin Franklin and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Despite his talent, he probably would not have become a full-time professional writer, given the lack of financial rewards, if a series of fortuitous incidents had not thrust writing as a profession upon him. Through friends, he was able to publish his Sketch Book (1819-1820) simultaneously in England and America, obtaining copyrights and payment in both countries. The Sketch Book of Geoffrye Crayon (Irvings pseudonym) contains his two best remembered stories, Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. Sketch aptly describes Irvings delicate, elegant, yet seemingly casual style, and crayon suggests his ability as a colorist or creator of rich, nuanced tones and emotional effects. In the Sketch Book, Irving transforms the Catskill Mountains along the Hudson River north of New York City into a fabulous, magical region. American readers gratefully accepted Irvings imagined history of the Catskills, despite the fact (unknown to them) that he had adapted his stories from a German source. Irving gave America something it badly needed in the brash, materialistic early years: an imaginative way of relating to the new land. No writer was as successful as Irving at humanizing the land, endowing it with a name and a face and a set of legends. The story of Rip Van Winkle, who slept for 20 years, waking to find the colonies had become independent, eventually became folklore. It was adapted for the stage, went into the oral tradition, and was gradually accepted as authentic American legend by generations of Americans. Irving discovered and helped satisfy the raw new nations sense of history. His numerous works may be seen as his devoted attempts to build the new nations soul by recreating history and giving it living, breathing, imaginative life. For subjects, he chose the most dramatic aspects of American history: the discovery of the New World, the first president and national hero, and the westward exploration. His earliest work was a sparkling, satirical History of New York (1809) under the Dutch, ostensibly written by Diedrich Knickerbocker (hence the name of Irvings friends and New York writers of the day, the Knickerbocker School). James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) James Fenimore Cooper, like Irving, evoked a sense of the past and gave it a local habitation and a name. In Cooper, though, one finds the powerful myth of a golden age and the poignance of its loss. While Irving and other American writers before and after him scoured Europe in search of its legends, castles, and great themes, Cooper grasped the essential myth of America: that it was timeless, like the wilderness. American history was a trespass on the eternal; European history in America was a reenactment of the fall in the Garden of Eden. The cyclical realm of nature was glimpsed only in the act of destroying it: The wilderness disappeared in front of American eyes, vanishing before the oncoming pioneers like a mirage. This is Coopers basic tragic vision of the ironic destruction of the wilderness, the new Eden that had attracted the colonists in the first place. Personal experience enabled Cooper to write vividly of the transformation of the wilderness and of other subjects such as the sea and the clash of peoples from different cultures. The son of a Quaker family, he grew up on his fathers remote estate at Otsego Lake (now Cooperstown) in central New York State. Although this area was relatively peaceful during Coopers boyhood, it had once been the scene of an Indian massacre. Young Fenimore Cooper grew up in an almost feudal environment. His father, Judge Cooper, was a landowner and leader. Cooper saw frontiersmen and Indians at Otsego Lake as a boy; in later life, bold white settlers intruded on his land. Natty Bumppo, Coopers renowned literary character, embodies his vision of the frontiersman as a gentleman, a Jeffersonian natural aristocrat. Early in 1823, in The Pioneers, Cooper had begun to discover Bumppo. Natty is the first famous frontiersman in American literature and the literary forerunner of countless cowboy and backwoods heroes. He is the idealized, upright individualist who is better than the society he protects. Poor and isolated, yet pure, he is a touchstone for ethical values and prefigures Herman Melvilles Billy Budd and Mark Twains Huck Finn. Based in part on the real life of American pioneer Daniel Boone who was a Quaker like Cooper Natty Bumppo, an outstanding woodsman like Boone, was a peaceful man adopted by an Indian tribe. Both Boone and the fictional Bumppo loved nature and freedom. They constantly kept moving west to escape the oncoming settlers they had guided into the wilderness, and they became legends in their own lifetimes. Natty is also chaste, high-minded, and deeply spiritual: He is the Christian knight of medieval romances transposed to the virgin forest and rocky soil of America. The unifying thread of the five novels collectively known as the Leather-Stocking Tales is the life of Natty Bumppo. Coopers finest achievement, they constitute a vast prose epic with the North American continent as setting, Indian tribes as characters, and great wars and westward migration as social background. The novels bring to life frontier America from 1740 to 1804. Coopers novels portray the successive waves of the frontier settlement: the original wilderness inhabited by Indians; the arrival of the first whites as scouts, soldiers, traders, and frontiersmen; the coming of the poor, rough settler families; and the final arrival of the middle class, bringing the first professionals the judge, the physician, and the banker. Each incoming wave displaced the earlier: Whites displaced the Indians, who retreated westward; the civilized middle classes who erected schools, churches, and jails displaced the lower-class individualistic frontier folk, who moved further west, in turn displacing the Indians who had preceded them. Cooper evokes the endless, inevitable wave of settlers, seeing not only the gains but the losses. Coopers novels reveal a deep tension between the lone individual and society, nature and culture, spirituality and organized religion. In Cooper, the natural world and the Indian are fundamentally good as is the highly civilized realm associated with his most cultured characters. Intermediate characters are often suspect, especially greedy, poor white settlers who are too uneducated or unrefined to appreciate nature or culture. Like Rudyard Kipling, E. M. Forster, Herman Melville, and other sensitive observers of widely varied cultures interacting with each other, Cooper was a cultural relativist. He understood that no culture had a monopoly on virtue or refinement. Cooper accepted the American condition while Irving did not. Irving addressed the American setting as a European might have by importing and adapting European legends, culture, and history. Cooper took the process a step farther. He created American settings and new, distinctively American characters and themes. He was the first to sound the recurring tragic note in American fiction. WOMEN AND MINORITIES Although the colonial period produced several women writers of note, the revolutionary era did not further the work of women and minorities, despite the many schools, magazines, newspapers, and literary clubs that were springing up. Colonial women such as Anne Bradstreet, Anne Hutchinson, Ann Cotton, and Sarah Kemble Knight exerted considerable social and literary influence in spite of primitive conditions and dangers; of the 18 women who came to America on the ship Mayflower in 1620, only four survived the first year. When every able-bodied person counted and conditions were fluid, innate talent could find expression. But as cultural institutions became formalized in the new republic, women and minorities gradually were excluded from them. Phillis Wheatley (c. 1753-1784) Given the hardships of life in early America, it is ironic that some of the best poetry of the period was written by an exceptional slave woman. The first African-American author of importance in the United States, Phillis Wheatley was born in Africa and brought to Boston, Massachusetts, when she was about seven, where she was purchased by the pious and wealthy tailor John Wheatley to be a companion for his wife. The Wheatleys recognized Philliss remarkable inte.